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Electrophilic and Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions – Detailed Notes & Mind Map

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    1. Definition of Substitution Reactions A Substitution Reaction is a type of chemical reaction in which one functional group in a molecule is replaced by another functional group or atom. 2. Electrophilic Substitution Reaction (ESR)   Definition: An Electrophilic Substitution Reaction is a chemical reaction where an electrophile (E⁺) replaces a hydrogen atom in an aromatic compound (most commonly benzene and its derivatives). General Reaction: Aromatic Compound (Ar–H) + E⁺ → Ar–E + H⁺ Mechanism of Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution (EAS): Example: Nitration of Benzene Step 1 – Generation of Electrophile (NO₂⁺): H N O 3 + H 2 S O 4 → N O 2 + + H S O 4 − + H 2 O HNO₃ + H₂SO₄ → NO₂^+ + HSO₄^- + H₂O Step 2 – Formation of Arenium Ion (σ-complex): Electrophile (NO₂⁺) attacks benzene → forms carbocation intermediate. Step 3 – Rearomatization: Loss of a proton (H⁺) restores aromaticity and produces nitrobenzene. Example Reactions: Nitration: Benzene +...
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Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties

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Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties July 29, 2024   by  Shivbalak Tiwari The classification of elements and the periodicity in their properties are foundational concepts in chemistry, encapsulated in the periodic table of elements. Here’s an overview: Classification of Elements Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids : Metals : Generally located on the left side and in the center of the periodic table. They are shiny, conductive, malleable, and ductile. Examples include iron, gold, and copper. Nonmetals : Found on the right side of the periodic table. They are usually not conductive, brittle in solid form, and have more varied physical properties. Examples include oxygen, sulfur, and chlorine. Metalloids : Located along the zigzag line (staircase) on the periodic table. They have properties intermediate between metals and nonmetals. Examples include silicon and arsenic. Groups and Periods : Groups : Vertical columns in the periodic table. Elements in the same gr...
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Derivation of the Integrated Rate Law for a First-Order Reaction

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Derivation of the Integrated Rate Law for a First-Order Reaction A first-order reaction is one where the rate of reaction depends linearly on the concentration of one reactant. The general form of a first-order reaction is: A → Products A → Products The rate of the reaction can be expressed as: Rate = − d [ A ] d t = k [ A ] Rate = − d t d [ A ] ​ = k [ A ] where: [ A ] [ A ]  is the concentration of the reactant  A A  at time  t t , k k  is the rate constant of the reaction. To derive the integrated rate law, we rearrange the equation to separate variables: d [ A ] [ A ] = − k   d t [ A ] d [ A ] ​ = − k d t Now, integrate both sides. The left side is integrated with respect to  [ A ] [ A ] , and the right side with respect to  t t : ∫ d [ A ] [ A ] = − ∫ k   d t ∫ [ A ] d [ A ] ​ = − ∫ k d t This gives: ln ⁡ [ A ] = − k t + C ln [ A ] = − k t + C where  C C  is the integration constant. To determine  C C , we use the initial condition ...
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