Biomolecules

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BIOMOLECULES –

Biomolecules are organic compounds produced by living organisms. They are essential for life processes such as growth, metabolism, heredity, and reproduction. 

MAIN TYPES OF BIOMOLECULES:

1. Carbohydrates

2. Amino acids

3. Proteins

4. Enzymes

5. Vitamins

6. Nucleic Acids

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1. CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones, or compounds that yield them on hydrolysis.

Classification:

• Monosaccharides – e.g., Glucose, Fructose

• Oligosaccharides – Sucrose, Maltose, Lactose

• Polysaccharides – Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose

 

Glucose:

• Aldohexose (C6H12O6)

• Exists in α- and β- forms

• Forms 6-membered cyclic structure (pyranose)

 

Fructose:

• Ketohexose

• Forms 5-membered ring (furanose)

 

Disaccharides:

• Sucrose = Glucose + Fructose (non-reducing)

• Maltose = Glucose + Glucose (reducing)

• Lactose = Glucose + Galactose (reducing)

 

Polysaccharides:

• Starch = Amylose + Amylopectin

• Cellulose = β-D-glucose polymer

• Glycogen = Animal storage polysaccharide

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2. AMINO ACIDS

General structure: NH2—CH(R)—COOH

 

• Essential amino acids – must be taken from diet

• Non-essential amino acids – synthesized by body

 

Zwitter Ion: Amino acids exist as dipolar ions

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3. PROTEINS

Polymers of α-amino acids linked by peptide bonds.

 

Levels of Structure:

• Primary – sequence of amino acids

• Secondary – α-helix, β-sheet

• Tertiary – 3D folding

• Quaternary – multiple polypeptide chains

 

Types:

• Fibrous proteins – keratin, collagen

• Globular proteins – enzymes, hemoglobin

 

Denaturation: Loss of biological activity (e.g., heating egg white)

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4. ENZYMES

Biocatalysts that speed up biochemical reactions.

Characteristics:

• Highly specific

• Efficient

• Work at 37°C optimum 

Examples:

• Amylase – digests starch

• Invertase – sucrose → glucose + fructose

• Zymase – fermentation

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5. VITAMINS

Required in small amounts.

Classification:

• Fat-soluble: A, D, E, K

• Water-soluble: B-complex, C

 Deficiency Diseases:

• Vitamin A – Night blindness

• B1 – Beriberi

• B12 – Pernicious anemia

• C – Scurvy

• D – Rickets

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6. NUCLEIC ACIDS (DNA & RNA)

Composed of:

• Sugar (Ribose/Deoxyribose)

• Base (A, G, C, T, U)

• Phosphate

DNA:

• Double helix

• A–T (2 H-bonds)

• G–C (3 H-bonds) 

RNA:

• Single-stranded

• U replaces T

Types: mRNA, tRNA, rRNA

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7. HORMONES

Chemical messengers.

 Examples:

• Insulin – controls blood sugar

• Adrenaline – emergency hormone

• Thyroxine – metabolism regulation

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8. METABOLISM

• Catabolism: breakdown (respiration)

• Anabolism: synthesis (photosynthesis)

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SUMMARY TABLE:

Carbohydrates → Monosaccharides → Glucose

Proteins → Amino acids → Enzymes

Lipids → Fatty acids → Oils, fats

Nucleic acids → Nucleotides → DNA, RNA

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